Engineering with Rubber: How to design Rubber Components

rubberchem · 发表于 2007-1-28 12:09:49

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一本英文版的橡胶制品设计手册
共有六个压缩卷

[ 本帖最后由 rubberchem 于 2007-1-28 12:26 编辑 ]

rubberchem · 发表于 2007-1-28 12:17:46

1. Introduction ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Rubber in Engineering ............................................................ 2
1.2 Elastomers .............................................................................. 2
1.3 Dynamic Application ................................................................ 3
1.4 General Design Principles ...................................................... 4
1.5 Thermal Expansivity, Pressure, and Swelling ........................ 4
1.6 Specific Applications and Operating Principles ...................... 5
1.7 Seal Life ................................................................................... 8
1.8 Seal Friction ............................................................................ 8
1.9 Acknowledgments ................................................................... 8
1.10 References .............................................................................. 9
2. Materials and Compounds ................................................ 11
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 13
2.2 Elastomer Types ..................................................................... 13
2.2.1 General-Purpose Elastomers ................................. 13
2.2.1.1 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) ............. 13
2.2.1.2 Polyisoprene (NR, IR) ............................... 14
2.2.1.3 Polybutadiene (BR) ................................... 15
2.2.2 Specialty Elastomers ............................................. 15
2.2.2.1 Polychloroprene (CR) ................................ 15
2.2.2.2 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene Rubber
(NBR) ........................................................ 16
2.2.2.3 Hydrogenated Nitrile Rubber
(HNBR) ...................................................... 16
2.2.2.4 Butyl Rubber (IIR) ..................................... 16
2.2.2.5 Ethylene-Propylene Rubber
(EPR, EPDM) ............................................ 16
2.2.2.6 Silicone Rubber (MQ) ................................ 17
2.2.2.7 Polysulfide Rubber (T) .............................. 17
2.2.2.8 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
(CSM) ........................................................ 17
2.2.2.9 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CM) ................. 17
2.2.2.10 Ethylene-Methyl Acrylate Rubber
(AEM) ........................................................ 18
2.2.2.11 Acrylic Rubber (ACM) ............................... 18
2.2.2.12 Fluorocarbon Rubbers (FKM) ................... 18
2.2.2.13 Epichlorohydrin Rubber (ECO) ................. 18
2.2.2.14 Urethane Rubber ....................................... 18
2.3 Compounding .......................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Vulcanization and Curing ....................................... 19
2.3.1.1 Sulfur Curing ............................................. 19
2.3.1.2 Determination of Crosslink Density ........... 21
2.3.1.3 Influence of Crosslink Density ................... 22
2.3.1.4 Other Cure Systems .................................. 23
2.3.2 Reinforcement ....................................................... 23
2.3.3 Anti-Degradants ..................................................... 25
2.3.3.1 Ozone Attack ............................................. 25
2.3.3.2 Oxidation ................................................... 26
2.3.4 Process Aids .......................................................... 28
2.3.5 Extenders .............................................................. 28
2.3.6 Tackifiers ............................................................... 29
2.4 Typical Rubber Compounds ................................................... 29

rubberchem · 发表于 2007-1-28 12:33:29

Acknowledgments ............................................................................ 33
Bibliography ...................................................................................... 33
Problems .......................................................................................... 34
Answers ............................................................................................ 34
3. Elasticity ............................................................................. 35
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 37
3.2 Elastic Properties at Small Strains .......................................... 37
3.2.1 Elastic Constants ................................................... 37
3.2.2 Relation between Shear Modulus G and
Composition ........................................................... 40
3.2.3 Stiffness of Components ........................................ 42
3.2.3.1 Choice of Shear Modulus .......................... 42
3.2.3.2 Shear Deformation of Bonded Blocks
and Hollow Cylindrical Tubes .................... 42
3.2.3.3 Small Compressions or Extensions of
Bonded Blocks .......................................... 44
3.2.3.4 Maximum Permitted Loads in
Tension and Compression ........................ 46
3.2.3.5 Indentation of Rubber Blocks by Rigid
Indentors ................................................... 47
3.2.3.6 Protrusion of Rubber Through a Hole
in a Rigid Plate .......................................... 49
3.3 Large Deformations ................................................................. 50
3.3.1 General Theory of Large Elastic
Deformations ......................................................... 50
3.3.2 Stress-Strain Relations in Selected Cases ............. 51
3.3.2.1 General Relations between Stress
and Strain .................................................. 51
3.3.2.2 Simple Extension ...................................... 51
3.3.2.3 Evaluation of the Strain Energy
Function W ................................................ 52
3.3.2.4 Elastic Behavior of Filled Rubber
Vulcanizates .............................................. 54
3.3.2.5 Equi-Biaxial Stretching .............................. 56
3.3.2.6 Constrained Tension (Pure Shear) ........... 57
3.3.2.7 Inflation of a Spherical Shell
(Balloon) .................................................... 58
3.3.2.8 Inflation of a Spherical Cavity .................... 59
3.3.3 Second-Order Stresses ......................................... 60
3.3.3.1 Simple Shear ............................................. 60
3.3.3.2 Torsion ...................................................... 62
3.4 Molecular Theory of Rubber Elasticity .................................... 63
3.4.1 Elastic Behavior of a Single Molecular
Strand .................................................................... 63
3.4.2 Elasticity of a Molecular Network ........................... 64
3.4.3 Effective Density of Network Strands ..................... 66
3.4.4 The Second Term in the Strain Energy
Function ................................................................. 66
3.4.5 Concluding Remarks on Molecular Theories .......... 68
Acknowledgments ............................................................................ 68
References ....................................................................................... 68
Problems .......................................................................................... 70
Answers to Selected Problems ........................................................ 70
4. Dynamic Mechanical Properties ....................................... 73
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 74
4.2 Viscoelasticity .......................................................................... 74
4.3 Dynamic Experiments ............................................................. 78
4.4 Energy Considerations ............................................................ 82
4.5 Motion of a Suspended Mass ................................................. 82
4.6 Experimental Techniques ....................................................... 87
4.6.1 Forced Nonresonance Vibration ............................ 87

rubberchem · 发表于 2007-1-28 12:46:52

4.6.2 Forced Resonance Vibration ................................. 87
4.6.3 Free Vibration Methods ......................................... 87
4.6.4 Rebound Resilience ............................................... 87
4.6.5 Effect of Static and Dynamic Strain Levels ............ 88
4.7 Application of Dynamic Mechanical Measurements ............... 89
4.7.1 Heat Generation in Rubber Components ............... 89
4.7.2 Vibration Isolation .................................................. 89
4.7.3 Shock Absorbers ................................................... 90
4.8 Effects of Temperature and Frequency .................................. 90
4.9 Thixotropic Effects in Filled Rubber Compounds ................... 94
Acknowledgements .......................................................................... 94
References ....................................................................................... 96
Problems .......................................................................................... 96
Answers ............................................................................................ 97
5. Strength .............................................................................. 99
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 100
5.2 Fracture Mechanics ................................................................. 100
5.2.1 Analysis of the Test Pieces .................................... 102
5.2.2 The Strain Energy Concentration at a
Crack Tip ............................................................... 103
5.3 Tear Behavior .......................................................................... 104
5.4 Crack Growth under Repeated Loading ................................. 109
5.4.1 The Fatigue Limit and the Effect of Ozone ............. 111
5.4.2 Physical Interpretation of G0 .................................. 113
5.4.3 Effects of Type of Elastomer and Filler .................. 114
5.4.4 Effect of Oxygen .................................................... 114
5.4.5 Effects of Frequency and Temperature .................. 116
5.4.6 Nonrelaxing Effects ................................................ 116
5.4.7 Time-Dependent Failure ........................................ 117
5.5 Ozone Attack ........................................................................... 117
5.6 Tensile Strength ...................................................................... 121
5.7 Crack Growth in Shear and Compression .............................. 122
5.8 Cavitation and Related Failures .............................................. 125
5.9 Conclusions ............................................................................. 126
Bibliography ...................................................................................... 126
Problems .......................................................................................... 129
Answers ............................................................................................ 131
6. Mechanical Fatigue ............................................................ 137
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 139
6.2 Application of Fracture Mechanics to Mechanical
Fatigue of Rubber ................................................................... 140
6.3 Initiation and Propagation of Cracks ....................................... 142
6.3.1 Fatigue Crack Initiation .......................................... 142
6.3.2 Fatigue Life and Crack Growth .............................. 143
6.3.3 Fatigue Crack Propagation: The Fatigue
Crack Growth Characteristic .................................. 144
6.3.4 Fatigue Life Determinations from the Crack
Growth Characteristics .......................................... 146
6.4 Fatigue Crack Growth Test Methodology ............................... 148
6.4.1 Experimental Determination of Dynamic
Tearing Energies for Fatigue Crack
Propagation ........................................................... 148
6.4.2 Kinetics of Crack Growth ....................................... 149
6.4.3 Effects of Test Variables on Fatigue Crack
Growth Characteristics and Dynamic
Fatigue Life ............................................................ 150
6.4.3.1 Waveform .................................................. 150
6.4.3.2 Frequency ................................................. 150
6.4.3.3 Temperature .............................................. 150

rubberchem · 发表于 2007-1-28 13:05:04

6.4.3.4 Static Strain/Stress .................................... 152
6.5 Material Variables and Their Effect on Fatigue Crack
Growth ..................................................................................... 154
6.5.1 Reinforcing Fillers and Compound Modulus ........... 154
6.5.2 Elastomer Type ..................................................... 156
6.5.3 Vulcanizing System ............................................... 157
6.6 Fatigue and Crack Growth of Rubber under Biaxial
Stresses .................................................................................. 158
6.7 Fatigue in Rubber Composites ............................................... 159
6.7.1 Effect of Wires, Cords, and Their Spacing on
Fatigue Crack Propagation .................................... 160
6.7.2 Effect of Minimum Strain or Stress ......................... 160
6.7.3 Comparison of S-N Curve and Fatigue Crack
Propagation Constants for Rubber-Wire
Composites ............................................................ 163
6.7.4 Fatigue of Two-Ply Rubber-Cord Laminates .......... 164
6.8 Fatigue Cracking of Rubber in Compression and Shear
Applications ............................................................................. 165
6.8.1 Crack Growth in Compression ............................... 165
6.8.2 Crack Growth in Shear .......................................... 167
6.9 Environmental Effects ............................................................. 168
6.10 Modeling and Life Predictions of Elastomeric
Components ............................................................................ 169
6.11 Fatigue Crack Propagation in Thermoplastic
Elastomers .............................................................................. 170
6.12 Durability of Thermoplastic Elastomers .................................. 170
6.13 Summary ................................................................................. 172
Acknowledgments ............................................................................ 173
References ....................................................................................... 173
Problems .......................................................................................... 174
Answers ............................................................................................ 175
7. Durability ............................................................................ 177
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 179
7.2 Creep, Stress Relaxation, and Set ......................................... 180
7.2.1 Creep ..................................................................... 181
7.2.2 Stress Relaxation .................................................. 181
7.2.3 Physical Relaxation ............................................... 182
7.2.4 Chemical Relaxation .............................................. 183
7.2.5 Compression Set and Recovery ............................ 184
7.2.6 Case Study ............................................................ 185
7.3 Longevity of Elastomers in Air ................................................ 186
7.3.1 Durability at Ambient Temperatures ....................... 186
7.3.2 Sunlight and Weathering ....................................... 186
7.3.3 Ozone Cracking ..................................................... 187
7.3.4 Structural Bearings: Case Studies ......................... 187
7.3.4.1 Natural Rubber Pads on a Rail
Viaduct after 100 Years of Service ............ 187
7.3.4.2 Laminated Bridge Bearings after 20
Years of Service ........................................ 189
7.4 Effect of Low Temperatures .................................................... 192
7.4.1 Glass Transition ..................................................... 192
7.4.2 Crystallization ........................................................ 192
7.4.3 Reversibility of Low Temperature Effects ............... 193
7.5 Effect of Elevated Temperatures ............................................ 193
7.6 Effect of Fluid Environments ................................................... 195
7.6.1 Aqueous Liquids .................................................... 199
7.6.2 Hydrocarbon Liquids .............................................. 201
7.6.3 Hydrocarbon and Other Gases .............................. 203
7.6.4 Effects of Temperature and Chemical
Attack .................................................................... 207
7.6.5 Effect of Radiation ................................................. 209

rubberchem · 发表于 2007-1-28 13:27:14

7.7 Durability of Rubber-Metal Bonds ........................................... 209
7.7.1 Adhesion Tests ...................................................... 210
7.7.2 Rubber-Metal Adhesive Systems ........................... 211
7.7.3 Durability in Salt Water: Role of
Electrochemical Potentials ..................................... 212
7.8 Life Prediction Methodology .................................................... 214
Acknowledgement ............................................................................ 217
References ....................................................................................... 217
Problems .......................................................................................... 218
Answers ............................................................................................ 220
8. Design of Components ..................................................... 223
8.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 224
8.2 Shear and Compression Bearings .......................................... 226
8.2.1 Planar Sandwich Forms ......................................... 226
8.2.1.1 Problem ..................................................... 230
8.2.2 Laminate Bearings ................................................. 231
8.2.2.1 Problem ..................................................... 231
8.2.3 Tube Form Bearings and Mountings ...................... 233
8.2.3.1 Problem ..................................................... 233
8.2.3.2 Problem ..................................................... 236
8.2.4 Effective Shape Factors ......................................... 237
8.3 Vibration and Noise Control .................................................... 238
8.3.1 Vibration Background Information .......................... 239
8.3.2 Design Requirements ............................................ 241
8.3.3 Sample Problems .................................................. 241
8.3.3.1 Problem ..................................................... 241
8.3.3.2 Problem ..................................................... 245
8.3.3.3 Problem ..................................................... 246
8.4 Practical Design Guidelines .................................................... 249
8.5 Summary and Acknowledgments ........................................... 250
Nomenclature ................................................................................... 251
References ....................................................................................... 251
Problems for Chapter 8 .................................................................... 252
Solutions for Problems for Chapter 8 ............................................... 253
9. Finite Element Analysis .................................................... 257
9.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 259
9.2 Material Specification .............................................................. 260
9.2.1 Metal ..................................................................... 260
9.2.2 Elastomers ............................................................ 260
9.2.2.1 Linear ........................................................ 260
9.2.2.2 Non-Linear ................................................ 265
9.2.3 Elastomer Material Model Correlation .................... 274
9.2.3.1 ASTM 412 Tensile Correlation .................. 274
9.2.3.2 Pure Shear Correlation ............................. 274
9.2.3.3 Bi-Axial Correlation ................................... 275
9.2.3.4 Simple Shear Correlation .......................... 276
9.3 Terminology and Verification .................................................. 276
9.3.1 Terminology ........................................................... 276
9.3.2 Types of FEA Models ............................................ 277
9.3.3 Model Building ....................................................... 278
9.3.3.1 Modeling Hints for Non-Linear FEA .......... 278
9.3.4 Boundary Conditions ............................................. 279
9.3.5 Solution ................................................................. 280
9.3.5.1 Tangent Stiffness ...................................... 280
9.3.5.2 Newton-Raphson ...................................... 281
9.3.5.3 Non-Linear Material Behavior ................... 281
9.3.5.4 Visco-Elasticity (See Chapter 4) ............... 281
9.3.5.5 Model Verification ...................................... 282
9.3.6 Results .................................................................. 282
9.3.7 Linear Verification .................................................. 283
9.3.8 Classical Verification – Non-Linear ........................ 283
9.4 Example Applications .............................................................. 287
9.4.1 Positive Drive Timing Belt ...................................... 287
9.4.2 Dock Fender .......................................................... 288
9.4.3 Rubber Boot .......................................................... 289
9.4.4 Bumper Design ...................................................... 291
9.4.5 Laminated Bearing ................................................. 293
9.4.6 Down Hole Packer ................................................. 297
9.4.7 Bonded Sandwich Mount ....................................... 297
9.4.8 O-Ring ................................................................... 299
9.4.9 Elastomer Hose Model .......................................... 301
9.4.10 Sample Belt ........................................................... 301
References ....................................................................................... 304
10. Tests and Specifications ................................................... 307
10.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 309
10.1.1 Standard Test Methods ......................................... 309
10.1.2 Purpose of Testing ................................................. 309
10.1.3 Test Piece Preparation .......................................... 310
10.1.4 Time between Vulcanization and Testing ............... 310
10.1.5 Scope of This Chapter ........................................... 310
10.2 Measurement of Design Parameters ...................................... 311
10.2.1 Young’s Modulus ................................................... 311
10.2.2 Shear Modulus ...................................................... 313
10.2.3 Creep and Stress Relaxation ................................. 315
10.2.3.1 Creep ........................................................ 316
10.2.3.2 Stress Relaxation ...................................... 316

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马上注册，结识高手，享用更多资源，轻松玩转三维网社区。