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Wind Energy_Fundamentals, Resource Analysis and Economics8 c9 i: c9 v7 o4 Z( A/ T8 f
Contents
% D% U6 ]& Q7 e* T+ bPreface …………………………………………………..................... VII
8 p) g1 U4 g- s1 Introduction …………………………………………………………1
& e% y! p8 f, D/ P5 \7 |1.1 History of wind energy………………………………………….3
3 U# V' h5 M0 H9 J/ k3 s# ]1.2 Current status and future prospects……………………………...7, O4 @ s1 z0 O! t1 g9 T. p
References ……………………………………………………………89 [1 d- B: L. \& E
2 Basics of Wind Energy Conversion ………………………………..11
7 E" j0 }" R$ W0 Y' X. ~8 o' r2.1 Power available in the wind spectra …………………………….11" x N5 z1 K0 s
2.2 Wind turbine power and torque ………………………………... 14, D x( T+ Q# p9 W
2.3 Classification of wind turbines ………………………………… 16
9 d3 m/ h; i/ r8 B7 y% S2.3.1 Horizontal axis wind turbines ……………………………178 x+ @) V. D9 k: |9 s, Z
2.3.2 Vertical axis wind turbines ……………………………… 18
" _: T: g- ^" p' c- d0 {Darrieus rotor …………………………………………….19& P* B4 M/ h) D$ r
Savonius rotor ……………………………………………20
9 Z6 k9 F. c# O5 c1 m0 d' hMusgrove rotor ………………………………………….. 21
K$ P7 `; S4 M: d6 I, `2.4 Characteristics of wind rotors ………………………………….. 22
8 ^; f7 ^* k/ @, t5 y9 K! P2.5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines ………………………………...23$ p. ?* C6 Z7 S+ x5 ~
2.5.1 Airfoil ……………………………………........................ 233 X4 ^% L3 l3 I: G P3 d4 M. A- W
2.5.2 Aerodynamic theories ……………………………………27
+ e1 W# j9 v; B7 K7 L& w9 `Axial momentum theory …………………………………27& Q5 O; L V! L2 c; V X
Blade element theory …………………………………….31
! G$ U: c9 M, ^, [, F' zStrip theory ………………………………………………33
3 ^* G5 p( Z3 E' L; ]8 F- R6 x0 c2.6 Rotor design …………………………………………………….34
. n- n2 l+ T. s0 E% I2.7 Rotor performance ……………………………………………... 40
0 z5 Z% G% v6 u/ T" p, [1 n, FReferences ……………………………………………………………42
1 ^ s5 ~( r' n* d3 Analysis of wind regimes……………………………………………45
. ^1 B6 N7 [4 u9 i; ?: @3.1 The wind………………………………………………………... 46' d) Z9 ]6 L# {6 T
3.1.1 Local effects………………………………………………47
1 }; P" |. l% |3.1.2 Wind shear………………………………………………..476 ?! ], o) `0 I# E1 [: a
3.1.3 Turbulence………………………………………………..50
: l$ f' \' ?! c$ M, `$ t1 ~" P( F8 P3.1.4 Acceleration effect………………………………………..51
9 n- C7 h! _) x. m3.1.5 Time variation…………………………………………….51+ M) T$ E9 G& ]
3.2 Measurement of wind……………………………………………53) W; o0 p' D$ K, J( N5 F+ o
3.2.1 Ecological indicators…………………………………….. 538 l" _" t$ B% I2 H
3.2.2 Anemometers……………………………………………..55
, s' Z4 b; U g( HCup anemometer………………………………………….55+ q( O6 ~. [" V" R( e; J+ V' Q
Propeller anemometer…………………………………….56' e' H0 p# V [2 ^6 Y( b
Pressure plate anemometer……………………………….56
- ]1 w9 o1 ]2 b6 }" y8 hPressure tube anemometers……………………………… 57
( m$ x- P* b0 L) \7 R9 Y6 J, JSonic anemometer……………………………………….. 588 c, B( E: e* h
3.2.3 Wind direction……………………………………………617 e ~3 J# Y3 d: o( v
3.3 Analysis of wind data……………………………………………61. u& U8 P9 v; i
3.3.1 Average wind speed………………………………………632 S+ `$ R; H( I {# C
3.3.2 Distribution of wind velocity……………………………..64
X$ R6 v0 {2 A$ v+ }! z+ a) l3.3.3 Statistical models for wind data analysis…………………68
8 x0 h& E9 Z: Z+ H: L) e/ {5 wWeibull distribution………………………………………687 w% I0 @3 l A" z4 U4 y' E- y
Rayleigh distribution…………………………………….. 78 x. d+ |9 y1 n* d
3.4 Energy estimation of wind regimes…………………………….. 80
$ Q( _5 z A7 k6 n( {9 ~7 B8 [- y' b3.4.1 Weibull based approach…………………………………..80% J( @0 Z# R- R
3.4.2 Rayleigh based approach…………………………………84
i, M! Q3 T3 TReferences…………………………………………………………….886 e8 d% @( h" Q2 J! e+ h! ^
4 Wind energy conversion systems………………………………….. 89
; x7 O9 Y& T6 L `1 b4.1 Wind electric generators………………………………………... 906 e( ?8 @5 E% Q" J
4.1.1 Tower……………………………………………………..91+ B2 P) Q5 t7 B( }$ z
4.1.2 Rotor……………………………………………………...96/ O( s" a) R' l7 v6 D
4.1.3 Gear box…………………………………………………. 99* \8 q* ^% f$ {) n$ t' q
4.1.4 Power regulation………………………………………….101' j( M; x) r- ^9 Z: o9 P
4.1.5 Safety brakes…………………………………………….. 1059 f1 y! t; j& C# ?2 Y# Z; p
4.1.6 Generator…………………………………………………107
9 s- @8 ?$ K' xInduction generator……………………………………….107
$ H* z: q* ~1 t* A/ h0 PSynchronous generator…………………………………... 110
, L" c! f* M% R4.1.7 Fixed and variable speed operations…………………….. 112
- H5 o5 L: n: v+ [, ]+ v" i! F4.1.8 Grid integration………………………………………….. 115& `( M8 }9 {/ H$ H( C. s
4.2 Wind farms………………………………………………………1178 Q! y# w+ b' f5 h
4.3 Offshore wind farms……………………………………………. 121
) X6 Y/ X0 U! D1 V ]5 D4.4 Wind pumps……………………………………………………..1243 y- l. r' l0 F' e% _
4.4.1 Wind powered piston pumps……………………………..126! @2 t, |- T: z& g
4.4.2 Limitations of wind driven piston pumps………………...1296 S, L A: g. C) M# D8 Q$ a
The hysteresis effect……………………………………...1291 \0 v9 [) l1 _, u
Mismatch between the rotor and pump characteristics….. 132
- b3 \4 H1 V* ?- }1 qDynamic loading of the pump’s lift rod………………… 133
" S2 r2 C4 c' F1 R! m8 F1 z4.4.3 Double acting pump………………………………………134
% n! H. n+ a' ^6 R) g& A! C4.4.4 Wind driven roto-dynamic pumps………………………..135( X7 H9 B) A8 I7 w- W0 \' q1 ?1 L
4.4.5 Wind electric pumps……………………………………...140# B) x: Q: O' S9 x9 h: @0 d
References…………………………………………………………….1422 c9 Z7 D- D; C y
5 Performance of wind energy conversion systems………………… 145
' \7 I3 a0 G8 j; ^8 G2 y3 D5.1 Power curve of the wind turbine………………………………...146
8 _6 U4 X9 `+ |: b: R5.2 Energy generated by the wind turbine…………………………..150' d+ m7 \1 b' D# S
5.2.1 Weibull based approach…………………………………. 150
" a7 j$ t2 x9 i; H- x- ?5.2.2 Rayleigh based approach…………………………………153; t! z' z* v: s! {/ T; V. G# W* S
5.3 Capacity factor…………………………………………………..155
y0 T& R# o; k# ?% R* k5 u9 A& v5.4 Matching the turbine with wind regime…………………………159# w! U6 |4 \+ B% B0 N5 R0 T+ k- e
5.5 Performance of wind powered pumping systems………………. 1645 H: ~) \- g. [3 m+ c" P
5.5.1 Wind driven piston pumps………………………………. 164
7 ~3 S$ ?+ F3 H) c$ P# b9 N/ N5.5.2 Wind driven roto-dynamic pumps………………………. 171
6 U+ t; O! A A4 ^5.5.3 Wind electric pumping systems…………………………. 175
1 q2 @7 Q, C4 r# xReferences…………………………………………………………….1774 [3 i9 y8 {% B! s/ O* v6 u
6 Wind energy and Environment……………………………………. 179
& v4 H7 V6 Y% [; ~( S6 n6.1 Environmental benefits of wind energy…………………………180
$ o& A& @* m: H. D1 u& s4 F: E! e6 R* t6.2 Life cycle analysis……………………………………………… 1829 o+ c2 C1 J! l0 ]7 r
6.2.1 Net energy analysis…………………………….…………185
7 @2 X4 f- E2 g! Y6.2.2 Life cycle emission……………………………………….1899 ?' o( @/ m+ \! W4 e; C
6.3 Environmental problems of wind energy………………………..193
8 g, a3 Q" z& { a6.3.1 Avian issues………………………………………………193
5 M/ i& Q) E$ k3 M6.3.2 Noise emission……………………………………………196) H+ t7 o5 K6 P9 m3 @$ A7 C
6.3.3 Visual impact……………………………………………..202
5 t. K9 _# b0 r+ t; [- a' PReferences…………………………………………………………….205
- s, c# t g' a: p5 j4 t2 o- U4 Y7 Economics of wind energy…………………………………………. 209
" j" g% n$ k% K+ d0 ~, [7.1 Factors influencing the wind energy economics……………….. 210& z" G" c8 e- ^% m& m
7.1.1 Site specific factors……………………………………… 210
4 {5 N+ g, Q* M- c7.1.2 Machine parameters………………………………………212
6 H* k& H/ s7 n/ q" \) ]! v7.1.3 Energy market…………………………………………….2134 i% E0 o8 P9 |5 Q4 n5 F+ q
7.1.4 Incentives and exemptions………………………………..214* w4 z7 e, p6 d8 \5 Y
7.2 The ‘present worth’ approach…………………………………... 2152 Y* w% D/ `0 \0 h! X/ D
7.3 Cost of wind energy……………………………………………..2200 O. ~. z8 J# ?7 t! H5 j- t0 c2 _+ U
7.3.1 Initial investment…………………………………………221
" ?9 {6 t* A2 n) g, f/ c5 ]7.3.2 Operation and maintenance costs………………………... 2229 v5 |* G2 U' x9 h$ a5 n) \8 t5 A E
7.2.3 Present value of annual costs……………………………..223+ K. [6 G0 E, Y" D1 f% {% G9 O% h, p) Y5 d
7.4 Benefits of wind energy…………………………………………225* u+ J* O, L, L. m
7.5 Yardsticks of economic merit…………………………………... 2278 W7 W/ f0 i0 m) j8 x/ ~; d% ^
7.5.1 Net present value………………………………………… 227: ?# j( t2 v. Y" h: h# h
7.5.2 Benefit cost ratio………………………………………… 228
: E& H& h, N3 U( a# {: v7.5.3 Pay back period………………………………………….. 229
# K6 H+ H' I( o* c& z" O; ]/ Q7.5.4 Internal rate of return……………………………………..230
2 P' m: E, W' L- d7.6 Tax deduction due to investment depreciation…………………. 233 K. z5 i& W, |$ P1 T
References…………………………………………………………….2369 @; C; A6 R$ H' J$ w
Appendix…………………………………………………………….. 237
) C% Q3 i' k& E4 o9 @2 TIndex………………………………………………………………….241
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Wind Energy_Fundamentals, Resource Analysis and Economics.part1.rar
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发表于 2009-2-17 13:33:10